[196] In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. Flower (2009)]. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. Further growth was constrained by an inadequate fresh-water supply. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. [114] His talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece. He died in 78. [245], With the introduction of aqueducts (from 312), suburban market-farms could be supplied with run-off or waste aqueduct water. Every district (Vicus) of the city had a crossroads shrine to its own protective Lares. [47] A dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed to negotiate with the plebeians, who had retreated to the Janiculum hill, perhaps to dodge the draft in the war against the Lucanians. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line. [27] The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated, but from 314, Rome was dominant, and offered progressively unfavourable terms for peace. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.[220]. [219] Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Some gentes claimed a divine descent, often thanks to a false etymology of their name; the Caecilii Metelli pretended to descend from Vulcan through his son Caeculus, the Mamilii from Circe through her granddaughter Mamilia, the Julii Caesares and the Aemilii from Venus through her grandsons Iulus and Aemylos. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger, a group of senators led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate on 15 March 44. [310], For most Romans, even the simplest, cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census. [33] Other tribunes controlled by the patricians vetoed the bills, but Stolo and Lateranus retaliated by vetoing the elections for five years while being continuously re-elected by the plebs, resulting in a stalemate. The Religion of the Roman RepublicThe Early Beginnings.Early Roman history and Roman mythology are so intertwined that it is impossible to separate the two. [40] Two years later, Publilius ran for the praetorship, probably in a bid to take the last senior magistracy closed to plebeians, which he won. [108] Now not only Rome's allies against Philip, but even Philip himself, sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids. It did most of the legislating and sat as a court for serious public offenses. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate. For a time the common people were placated with bread and circuses, as the authorities attempted to divert their attention from the gap between their standard of living and that of the aristocracy. In 209, he took Carthago Nova, the main Punic base in Hispania, then defeated Hasdrubal at the Battle of Baecula (208). The four time consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian dictator in 356 and censor in 351. [42][43] In 312, following this law, the patrician censor Appius Claudius Caecus appointed many more senators to fill the new limit of 300, including descendants of freedmen, which was deemed scandalous. [208] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. Publius Valerius Laevinus, the consul sent to face him, rejected the king's negotiation offer, as he had more troops and hoped to cut the invasion short. "Fear, greed, and glory: The causes of Roman war-making in the middle Republic." Yet, Macedonian agitation continued. [184] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. Initially, the plan of the Republic was to carry war outside Italy, by sending the consuls Publius Cornelius Scipio to Hispania, and Sempronius Longus to Africa, while their naval superiority prevented Carthage from attacking from the sea. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda. In 53, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). This was the bottom rung of one of Rome's fundamental social and economic institutions, the client-patron relationship. Each was assigned a provincia by the Senate. [143] The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. [250][251] Though meat and hides were valuable by products of stock-raising, cattle were primarily reared to pull carts and ploughs, and sheep were bred for their wool, the mainstay of the Roman clothing industry. Military success was achieved through a combination of personal and collective virtus (roughly, "manly virtue") and divine will. Food surpluses, no matter how obtained, kept prices low. In the earliest years of the Republic, Camillus promised Veii's goddess Juno a temple in Rome as incentive for her desertion (evocatio). Practice: Roman Republic. Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial. He soon showed outstanding skills as a commander, by winning a series of battles with ingenious tactics. Ancient Roman historians initially differed over the precise date of Rome’s foundation. [124] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a However, Rome responded by sending a stronger army. [citation needed]. [136] They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Prior to the republic, Etruscan kings who lived nearby in central Italy ruled Rome. A form of limited, theoretically voluntary slavery (debt bondage, or nexum) allowed wealthy creditors to negotiate payment of debt through bonded service. By the end of the republic, however, it was generally accepted that Rome had been founded in 753 bce and that the republic had begun in 509 bce, following the overthrow of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome’s seven kings. [17][18], By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours, and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes. [188] The powers of a magistrate came from the people of Rome (both plebeians and patricians). Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. [235] Infant mortality was high. A. Crook, F. W. Walbank, M. W. Frederiksen, R. M. Ogilvie (editors). [iii][iv] His tribal reforms were nonetheless cancelled by the next censors, Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus, his political enemies. 117) gives 70,000 dead. The fine was so high that Carthage could not pay Hamilcar's mercenaries, who had been shipped back to Africa. The building of further aqueducts led to the city's expansion and the establishment of public baths (thermae) as a central feature of Roman culture. Praetors administered civil law[194] and commanded provincial armies. This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168[114][116] and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the war.[117]. [256] An Imperial-era source claims that the Republic's first consul, Brutus, effectively abolished human sacrifice to the goddess Mania, instituted by the last king, Tarquinius. See Stone. The Roman embassy sent to investigate the affair was insulted and war was promptly declared. During the Republican period of Ancient Rome, the _____ had less social and political authority than the _____ A. Etruscans, plebeians B. Plebeians, Patricians C. Patricians, Etruscans D. Patricians, plebeians The Romans were nevertheless defeated at Heraclea, as their cavalry were afraid of the elephants of Pyrrhus, who lost a large portion of his army. Works of well-known, popular playwrights were sometimes commissioned for performance at religious festivals; many of these were Satyr plays, based on Greek models and Greek myths. Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display. In May 218, he indeed crossed the Ebro with a large army of about 100,000 soldiers and 37 elephants. Rome's military secured Rome's territory and borders, and helped to impose tribute on conquered peoples. Later, the vast conquests of the Republic disrupted its society, as the immense influx of slaves they brought enriched the aristocracy, but ruined the peasantry and urban workers. The starting point was in 400, when the first plebeian consular tribunes were elected; likewise, several subsequent consular colleges counted plebeians (in 399, 396, 388, 383, and 379). The war resulted in a stalemate, with the Treaty of Phoenice signed in 205. [56][57][58] In 279, Pyrrhus met the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio at the Battle of Asculum, which remained undecided for two days, as the Romans had prepared some special chariots to counter his elephants. The Forum took its true form and shape in the period of the Republic. To represent their interests, the plebs elected tribunes, who were personally sacrosanct, immune to arbitrary arrest by any magistrate, and had veto power over the passage of legislation.[24]. They initially formed a closed group of about 50 large families, called gentes, who monopolised Rome's magistracies, state priesthoods and senior military posts. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience. During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. Accusations of alcoholism were used to discredit political rivals. The Republic's most notable religious suppression was that of the Bacchanalia, a widespread, unofficial, enthusiastic cult to the Greek wine-god Bacchus. By 71, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. In the 4th century, plebeians gradually obtained political equality with patricians. They could not intermarry. Rome's rapid expansion destabilized its social organization and triggered unrest in the heart of the Republic, which ultimately led to political violence, unrest in the provinces, and ultimately a breakdown in the traditional social relations of Rome that created the Augustan Empire. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. The ensuing period of unrest and revolution marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire. Pigs bred prolifically, and could be raised at little cost by any small farmer with rights to pannage. The city's patron deity, whom the Romans recognised as a warlike version of Venus, was "persuaded" to change her allegiance and was rewarded with a magnificent temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome's twelve Dii consentes. [80] Meanwhile, Carthage compensated the loss of Sicily and Sardinia with the conquest of Southern Hispania (up to Salamanca), and its rich silver mines. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. Examples of devotio, as performed by the Decii Mures, in which soldiers offered and gave their lives to the Di inferi (gods of the underworld) in exchange for Roman victory were celebrated as the highest good. The Roman Empire: The Fall of the Roman Republic. Updates? For full treatment, see ancient Rome. Much of his history, however, especially the early years, was based purely on … His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (left) accepting the position of dictator of Rome from the Senate, undated woodcut. During the 6th century bce, Rome became one of the more important states in Latium—owing to the achievements of its Etruscan overlords—but Tibur (Tivoli), Praeneste, and Tusculum were equally important Latin states. Later introductions include Summanus, c. 278, Vortumnus c. 264, and at some time before the end of the 3rd century, Minerva. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome. Milleker, Elizabeth J., ed. [319], Romans valued fresh fruit, and had a diverse variety available to them. In other years, crop failure through soil exhaustion, adverse weather, disease or military incursions could lead to poverty, unsupported borrowing, and debt. In 202, internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt's position, thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states. Towards the end of the Republic, the senate could enact a senatus consultum ultimum in times of emergency, instead of appointing a dictator. Note that "Carthage" was not an 'empire', but a league of Punic colonies (port cities in the western Mediterranean) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ("Attic") leagues, under leadership of Carthage. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. According to tradition, the first six kings had been benevolent rulers, but the last was a cruel tyrant who was overthrown by a popular uprising. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. [34] In 367, they carried a bill creating the Decemviri sacris faciundis, a college of ten priests, of whom five had to be plebeians, therefore breaking patricians' monopoly on priesthoods. It also elected censors. Piety (pietas) was the correct, dutiful and timely performance of such actions. "Rome Enters the Greek East". He took Utica, then won the Battle of the Great Plains, which prompted Carthage to recall Hannibal from Italy and open peace negotiations with Rome. The prevalent modern view is that the monarchy at Rome was incidentally terminated through military defeat and foreign intervention. [215] The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. Scipio could now use the heavy Numidian cavalry of Massinissa – which had hitherto been so successful against Rome – to rout the Punic wings, then flank the infantry, as Hannibal had done at Cannae. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[181] which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The Romans organized the conquered peoples into provinces—under the control of appointed governors with absolute power over all non-Roman citizens—and stationed troops in each, ready to exercise appropriate force if necessary. Finally, the resolution of the crisis came from the dictator Camillus, who made a compromise with the tribunes; he agreed to their bills, while they in return consented to the creation of the offices of praetor and curule aediles, both reserved to patricians. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. Its several shrines and temples included those to Rome's indigenous sun god, Sol, the moon-goddess Luna, the grain-storage god, Consus, and the obscure goddess Murcia. Caesar and Pompey, along with Marcus Licinius Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia,[157] completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. Distribution of peoples of ancient Italy c. 500. According to Roman tradition, soldiers had once worn togas to war, hitching them up with what was known as a "Gabine cinch". The Carthaginians supposedly sued him for peace, but his conditions were so harsh that they continued the war instead. Yet, no republican form of government could keep the Roman state in line. is the legendary date of the founding of Rome by Romulus. In 242, the 200 quinqueremes of the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus blockaded Drepana. Rome's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300. [52] In 282, several Roman warships entered the harbour of Tarentum, thus breaking a treaty between the Republic and the Greek city, which forbade the Gulf to Roman navy. [109] The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory. [189] The imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. A portion of Sicily's grain harvest was sent to Rome as tribute, for redistribution by the aediles. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[141] and Rome for its part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. [90] This famous exploit cost him almost half of his troops,[91] but he could now rely on the Boii and Insubres, still at war with Rome. The Roman Republic was a democracy. [73] Although Carthage was victorious on land at Thermae in Sicily, the corvus made Rome invincible on the waters. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support. Porsenna, the Etruscan king of Clusium, defeated the Romans and expelled Tarquinius Superbus. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [190] Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. Omissions? p. 43, Eckstein, Arthur. Although far less well known than Caesar’s conquest of Gaul (58–51 … The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390–387 BC. In order to solve this issue, several social reformers, known as the Populares, tried to pass agrarian laws, but the Gracchi brothers, Saturninus, or Clodius Pulcher were all murdered by their opponents, the Optimates, keepers of the traditional aristocratic order. Barbette Stanley Spaeth, "The Goddess Ceres and the Death of Tiberius Gracchus", Established in 196 to take over the running of a growing number of, Beard, Mary, "The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins,". Its first enemies were its Latin and Etruscan neighbours as well as the Gauls, who even sacked the city in 387 BC. During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modelled after those of the Etruscans to the north,[200] who themselves are believed to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. In effect under a Carthaginian protectorate, the remaining Mamertines appealed to Rome to regain their independence. An embassy carrying an ultimatum was sent to Carthage, asking its senate to condemn Hannibal's deeds. Towards the end of the Republic, the birthrate began to fall among the elite. For example, Mommsen considered he was a revolutionary, but was puzzled by his opposition to the. [41], During the early republic, senators were chosen by the consuls among their supporters. This success was spoilt by a storm that annihilated the victorious navy: 184 ships of 264 sank, 25,000 soldiers and 75,000 rowers drowned. [177] Throughout the history of the Republic, changes in the constitution were driven by conflicts of interest between the aristocracy and ordinary citizens. How were Roman trading patterns similar to those of Hellenistic Greece? [101][102] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet. Though the Republic and the Empire receive the most attention, Rome was already over two hundred years old when the Republic arose. [135] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. For a discussion of the duties and legal status of plebeian tribunes and aediles, see Andrew Lintott. "Rome Enters the Greek East". [316] Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura includes several recipes and his suggested "Rations for the hands". The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. Consequently, over time, historical facts about early Rome suffered from patriotic reinterpretation involving exaggerations of the truth, the suppression of embarrassing facts, and invention. Carthage was an oligarchy at the time, dominated by the Barcids. [278][279] In the late Republic, augury came under the control of the pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the civil and military cursus honorum. Vestals found guilty of inchastity were "willingly" buried alive, to expiate their offence and avoid the imposition of blood-guilt on those who inflicted the punishment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. Rather than restoring their king, the Romans replaced the kingship with two annually elected magistrates called consuls. Some of Republican Rome's leading deities were acquired through military actions. His adviser, the orator Cineas, made a peace offer before the Roman Senate, asking Rome to return the land it took from the Samnites and Lucanians, and liberate the Greek cities under its control. [312][315], Modern study of the dietary habits during the Republic are hampered by various factors. In Hispania, the situation was overall much better for Rome. [54][55], Pyrrhus and his army of 25,500 men (and 20 war elephants) landed in Italy in 280; he was immediately named Strategos Autokrator by the Tarentines. [104] The delegation succeeded, even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy. However, only fragments of Ennius' epic, the Annales, have survived, yet both Naevius and Ennius influenced later Latin epic, especially Virgil's Aeneid. Caesar would be elected consul in 59, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. It was thought to have begun during the early Roman kingdom, as a plain woolen "shepherd's wrap", worn by both sexes, all classes, and all occupations, including the military. C) Trade extended the furthest during the republican period. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull. The Republic nonetheless demonstrated extreme resilience and always managed to overcome its losses, however catastrophic. This theatre was mostly commanded by the brothers Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, who won the battles of Cissa in 218, soon after Hannibal's departure, and Dertosa against his brother Hasdrubal in 215, which enabled them to conquer the eastern coast of Hispania. The Republic was created during a time of warfare, economic recession, food shortages, and plebeian debt. The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe, the Senones,[25] invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome's sphere of influence. [197] Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. Likewise, most priests of public cult were expected to marry, produce children, and support their families. In Maguinness, W.S; Scullard, H.H. [133] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. [193] His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. [110] A major Roman-Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman-Syrian War. Here on ) was quickly decided in Rome was already over two hundred years when. Own son Marcus ( Cicero minor ). 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